Some of them more highly organized than others. In fact, the world was no more undifferentiated for the Neo-Confucians than for modern organic philosophy; it manifested a series of integrative levels of organization, wholes at one level being parts on the next. A clear statement of this conception appears in the ninth paragraph of the Thai chi Thu Shuo [Explanation of the diagram of the supreme polarity], which indicated the inapplicability of categories outside the level to which they belong.
While Zhu often speaks of knowing or comprehending something in terms of the metaphor of seeing it clearly, of having a clear discernment of it, which is nothing like rigid propositional knowledge, he does recognize several forms or levels of knowing, and regards the basic steps of learning in analytical propositional terms and the higher levels in more synthetic insight terms.
That is, one first learns facts about the building blocks of the world and human life, e. As noted, Zhu drew on notions of qi, yin-yang , the five phases, shu numbers, probablilities , and images as conceptual and categorical resources for classifying, characterizing, and understanding the world, especially cycles, processes, and particular things and events.
Chinese thinkers, especially during the Han dynasty, used such notions to arrange categories of reality and compile lists of qualities for each category. While some of the associated qualities are directly or causally linked, many of them are arbitrary—perhaps assigned in light of long forgotten events or decrees. These sets of categories were compiled as systematic indices for grasping things and events in terms of categorical associations and imputations.
Inevitably, these sets of categories bore a strongly cultural stamp and bias but were applied equally to natural phenomena, as if the natural world were an extension of the human world, not vice versa.
Zhu often classified a natural phenomenon in terms of these categories and associations, and left it at that, unconcerned that the categories were haphazard and the associations arbitrary and inexplicable. Likely Zhu recognized that these categories and associations often were arbitrary and not particularly informative regarding physical reality but did not find it necessary or practical to pursue the matter. He presumably contented himself with assigning phenomena to these culturally colored sets of categories and associations because in those speech contexts those associations were more significant and interesting than the probing of purely physical categories and explanations would have been.
These sorts of examples reflect the cultural common sense and conditions of common speech of his age. The question arises whether these sets of categories and associations were more a help or a hindrance to the development of science in traditional China.
Interestingly, Zhu often sidestepped these sets of categories altogether in his serious thinking about natural phenomena and judged them by what he took to be the deciding factors in the cases themselves, often in light of analogies. For example, Zhu often said that the earth was floating on water; both below the earth and surrounding its four sides were water, but he also said that qi surrounded the earth.
Zhu was interested in these accounts of the formation of the world, but saw no way to confirm any of them. He perhaps thought it was important to present such accounts as representative of an objective approach to a question that was more amenable to mystical or religious approaches.
Construing phenomena as resonant and sensitive, perhaps perceptive in a rudimentary sense, the notion of stimulus-response reinforces the interdependence of things.
Assuming a resonance among things in terms of parallelisms among their forms, and affinities among their qi , this notion presents phenomena on a biological model and conduces to an ecological rather than a mechanical outlook.
Also, since the idea of stimulus-response was usually tied to the aforementioned sets of categories and associations, it was often vague and applied in arbitrary and superstitious ways. From the standpoint of developing science, by making change seem to be natural and inevitable, these notions of transformation and change tended to make further inquiry appear to be unwarranted.
In contrast, Western ideas of eternal substance and inert matter, for example, made the observed changes on the earth and in the skies problematic and in urgent need of further inquiry and explanation. More pragmatic in spirit, the Chinese were concerned mainly with registering and grasping the observed patterns and sequences of change in and around them so as to be able to adapt their lives to the ever-changing circumstances.
The Book of Changes was a guide to making such adaptations. Zhu Xi posits an ontological and causal continuity between the celestial and terrestrial realms, as well as between the animal and plant species and humanity.
Indeed, there is no categorical difference between human beings and other life forms. Against this backdrop, Zhu carefully observed anomalies and sketched explanations based on the general ideas available to him. For example, when observing fossils of seashells atop a mountain, Zhu noted that the area had once been a seabed and hypothesized that the earth formerly was softer and more fluid and that, through wave motions, this seabed later rose to become a mountain top. Meanwhile, the entire earth dried as it grew older.
While this explanation was not rigorous or determinate enough to count as a scientific hypothesis; Zhu appealed only to naturalistic concepts and principles in his comments. Zhu also made quantitative measurements of plant growth. Wang was just undertaking bland looking Qian f, In contrast to analytical Western concepts used in studying the natural world, including matter, material quality, motion, and change, Zhu Xi adopted a holistic approach to understanding the physical world and phenomena.
He drew upon received notions of li pattern and qi cosmic vapor to describe and account for the material, dynamic, and formal features of perceived phenomena. Li pattern refer to the inner patterns of both interaction and identifying form. As noted, li are not general overarching principles, but inner patternings implicated in things and events, from the discernible textures—grains in wood, veins in leaves—to the postulated identifying forms, xing , of things.
In terms of dynamic interaction, li structure the primal yin-yang intercourse as taiji , and the intercourse among the five phases as their constitutive identifying forms. Zhu thus conceived of the cosmos as emerging from incipient yin-yang interaction in the initially formless primal qi yuanqi.
Yin-yang interaction and further permutations give rise to the five phases, which bear the full range of material and perceptual qualities and whose interaction gives rise to heaven, earth, and the myriad things, i. The Chinese system of five phases differs from traditional Western atomism on several counts.
As qi yin-yang operates in essentially a wave-like manner, the world is manifested as a field of interacting qi forces. Change is a function of the attunement of forms and resonance of qi , and transformation is viewed according to chemical and biological models. That is, not only are the five phases derived from yin-yang interaction; they are divisible and inter-convertible.
Moreover, while Western atoms bear only primary qualities in themselves, each of the five phases exhibits a range of perceptual qualities and effects, and the tradition attributes a plethora of qualities and associations to yin and yang. These flexible and adaptable concepts do not create the sorts of problems, the kinds of conflicts with observation, that prompt rethinking and further, more precise investigations of phenomena. Because perceptual properties of all sorts are propagated from the formation of the five phases, Zhu Xi and others in his tradition did not draw the critical distinction between primary and secondary qualities that formed a crucial linchpin in physical analysis in the West from antiquity.
Lacking the critical distinction between primary and secondary qualities, Zhu treated perceptual qualities, such as color and taste, as equally basic, innate, and real in material substances as any other, and as such he did not look to underlying principles, causes, or mechanisms in terms of which to explain these manifest qualities.
At the same time, Zhu did have a grasp of inertia and the relativity of motion, keys to solving the problems of motion, but it was not adequate to the task. The capacity to imagine ideal cases and relationships would have been necessary: for example, Galileo had to conceive of the paradigmatic case of motion in terms of an object moving in a straight line on a frictionless plane at a constant velocity, something that can never occur in nature, for any actual object inevitably will be environed and influenced by a variety of forces, such as gravity and friction.
Necessary, too, was an awareness of the possibility of mathematical calculation and precise predictions. If he had had a notion of paradigmatic perpetual motion, it would have been something like wave motions in the sea or the cyclical pumping action of the traditional Chinese waterwheel used for irrigation with rising full troughs of water complemented by the falling empty troughs receptacles , which he had used to depict the yin-yang operation of taiji.
Zhu also lacked the necessary notions of precise mathematicization, measurement, and calculation in terms of which to make the theory of motion bear fruit. Consequently, it is hardly to be expected that Zhu or any one else in his intellectual circle should have had occasion to formulate anything like a scientific theory of motion.
Zhu was loath to investigate the sorts of fundamental abstract concepts, such as element, compound, infinity, space, time, void, causality, and law, that were necessary for making breakthroughs in the scientific revolution. Because of the Confucian commonsense approach to things, Zhu was disinclined to pursue or investigate such abstract, intangible, and seemingly ephemeral notions. He tended to think that focusing on concepts like void, nothingness, infinity, and space would draw people away from the world of human affairs and ultimately incline them toward pointless introspection.
In another case, he discussed the difficulty of boiling rice atop a particular mountain in terms of the characteristics of the qi cosmic vapor of that mountain, without relating the phenomenon generally to characteristics of qi as air pressure at high altitudes.
Inevitably, this ignoring of general principles made Zhu less sensitive to the contradictions that arose when he offered more than one explanation of a single phenomenon. So, he did not have a practical interest in pushing his inquiries in purely scientific directions. But, this way of putting it is not completely right because Zhu had considered a variety of philosophic positions and did think he had selected the best and most accurate of the concepts and systems at his disposal.
And, he did attempt to render his ideas in a manner that was faithful to reality, the devotion to which was one of his core cultivation themes. He regarded reality, the world, not in terms of logical order, but as manifesting aesthetic order. Reality for him was not composed of independent atoms operating under general laws; rather it formed a field in which particulars appeared as foci determined in context. To Zhu, ours is not an absolute, objective universe in which particular individuals are subsumed under generalities and behave according to universal laws; rather, the world unfolds before us in light of our increasing, expanding perception of the arrays of particular phenomena around us.
The world we experience is a function of, a field manifested as, the tapestry formed through the resonance among the foci making up that field. Consequently, the task of investigating things is a process of unfolding rather than an inductive process , an exhausting of the li constituting particular things and events, from their gestalt forms, such as the symmetrical bilateral forms of most biological entities, to their identifying forms to their functions and typical patterns of interaction.
Proceeding in this way, we seek not the most general laws or principles governing particular atomic individuals, but rather the most basic or common patterns of interaction and formation among particulars as foci in fields. Zhu Xi erected a philosophical synthesis that has been compared broadly to the systems of Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, Whitehead, and others.
Zhu blended this conception with ideas from the Book of Change and its commentaries in setting forth a comprehensive philosophy of cosmic and human creativity and providing philosophical grounds for the received Confucian concepts of human nature and self-cultivation. For his part, any viable account of the complexity of phenomena must involve two or more facets in order to register their complexity, variety, and changes.
At first, Zhu thought this principle only governed qi phenomena as patterned by li , but eventually he admitted that not only were yin and yang paradigmatic polar complements but that the supreme polarity taiji complemented the yin-yang polarity, and inferred that li and qi , as the references of taiji and yin-yang , respectively, too had to be complements. This meant that li and qi were functionally on a par and mutually implicative.
Zhu still felt the need to prioritize li ontologically and ethically, however, for the reason that li underwrites both the possibility of qi ordering to yield a world and phenomena and the possibility of moral feelings and norms to yield ethics and a system of rites. Treating li and qi as full ontological complements would quite possibly entail a Daoist conception of nature as pure spontaneity and ethics as just perspectival while prioritizing qi over li would be inadequate for understanding the world and phenomenal orders, and reduce ethics to the received norms.
Recognizing li and qi as complements serves to underscore their unity in difference and their implicatedness in not just the forms but in the flow of events comprising the world. This is spontaneously so and not artificially arranged. When I reflect on this truth late at night, I feel delighted as if my hands were waving and my feet were dancing.
Zhu Xi regarded this complementary pattern as describing the most fundamental ordering tendency of cosmos, phenomena, and self. Notably, this is li pattern in a new sense, now more as a pattern of creative intercourse than just as inherent patterning or order. Zhu remarks that Cheng Hao felt delighted about his insight into this li because,. As mentioned, Zhu usually construes this as a li pattern underlying the complementary relationships among qi phenomena, which li itself transcends, hence implying a vertical bifurcation between li and qi.
As to the categories of above and below, small and great, clear and turbid, they also pertain to things. These [ yin and yang ] are mutual complements. The contexts of these complements are not themselves complementary li. Rather, the li are the very reason by which there are these complements. Zhu also applies this li pattern creatively to number, speech, objects, and games. Any word will bear its semantic complement within.
Moreover, each side has its complement…. Any single thing bears its complement within. In the end, when only one path remains open and it seems that no other complement remains, this very path still complements the other paths. At the same time, Zhu hesitates to accept that li and qi themselves are complementary, but this primarily reflects his ethical concerns.
As to what would be the complement of taiji , it is said that taiji is wuji free of polarity …. Taiji also complements yin-yang ….
Having the tranquility of the pre-aroused emotions of pleasure and anger, grief and joy, there is the harmony of these emotions when aroused in due degree. Taiji and wuji are opposed, apparently contradictory, expressions. Signifying the most basic complementarity, namely, that between yin and yang , taiji is the most primitive and original form of li. It is quintessential li , or elementary form patterning.
Signifying something unbounded and free of polarity, wuji describes the unformed primal qi whence yin and yang emerge through the taiji impulse. It is quintessential qi , pure potentiality. They complement taiji as pure energy to pure form, thus expressing another dimension of the li-qi complementarity.
For example, for any particular qi formation to have come about, it had to have been possible for the qi constituents to combine in that particular way to yield those properties and capacities. This is why, methodologically, Zhu insists that learners acquaint themselves with the li of things, processes, affairs, ethics, etc. He regards the study of li in abstraction from phenomena to be wooden, hollow, empty, etc.
It reveals the pulse of life at the heart of li and affirms the possibilities of form in the vagaries of qi movement. At the same time, this reconfiguration marks a step away from primarily immanental aesthetic pattern of the li conception to a more abstract, more self-consciously meta-pattern.
In other words, calligraphy had to observe rules and at the same time not be bound by them so as to express the quality of naturalness. His calligraphy had been highly esteemed throughout Chinese history. Masterpieces by Zhu Xi view the entire calligraphy gallery. Make a free website with Yola. Zhu Xi - Song Dynasty. Over the course of an investigation you will have to deal with your personal feelings, principles and values in addition to establishing your methodology, collecting and verifying information, building evidence, and so on.
You will need to identify possible biases and also be careful not to undertake more than you can handle emotionally. These concerns are valid when working with any type of methods and resources, online and in the field, or with human sources and interviewees. It is okay to feel low and frustrated, and to seek the counsel of more experienced investigators. Speak up, and find effective therapy options if you feel that your investigation is taking a toll on you.
Experiencing or hearing about trauma or investigating corruption or injustice, for instance, may put a lot of pressure on you. Often, investigators feel that people need them to keep investigating because they may need help right away.
Investigators, activists, human rights defenders, and many others who deal directly with issues affecting people around them may often feel this way. This is also one of the main factors that drive investigators to continue their work, so it might be something that drives you, too. Your self-care, just as your safety, should always come first. If your capacities are dwindling due to your state of mind, that will influence your investigation.
Look on the bright side and consider that even when your investigations might not be as successful as you want them to be, you are always trying. Sometimes it will be difficult to set aside your emotions, whether they are feelings of anger or sadness. Even when you are in the right mindset,situations like confronting an adversarial source or listening to a vulnerable witness can trigger your own feelings.
If this happens during the interview or at any stage of your investigation, you have to be able to focus on your evidence collection process and your questions. Remember that you are a mere recipient of the evidence provided and try to keep your mind calm and collected in order to achieve your goals. Our unconscious biases make us more interested in hearing some stories, and less interested in others. You should accept that you cannot remain a completely detached observer.
But you should still strive to be mindful of your biases and seek to act in a fair and honest way as much as possible. Your investigation may fail if you push a certain point of view at the expense of others, or neglect important context due to your personal bias.
This can also damage your reputation and trustworthiness. There is no better expression to illustrate what it means to be safe on the outside and safe on the inside. Holistic security implies a method and way of work and life that takes into account physical and emotional factors. This approach is promoted and encouraged among high-risk communities of human rights defenders, gender activists, investigative journalists, community organisers, citizen investigators and others.
It goes further and addresses ways to stay physically and mentally aware and sane, care for yourself and for those around you and take time to reassess the relevance, impact and toll of your work on yourself and others. To get you started, we recommend the Holistic Security guide published by Tactical Tech through long-term collaborations with individuals and communities researching, working and living in stressful situations. When you are just beginning to investigate, it makes sense to approach the process from the most comfortable and safe point of entry.
If you are the type of internet scout who knows tonnes of social media research tricks or are good at digging into databases and indexing online information about various topics, start with that. If the virtual space is not your thing, maybe start by observing and documenting what happens in the physical world.
Take photos, make detailed notes about events and situations, talk to people and see if you can gain their trust and build sources. There is no point in starting your first investigation by experimenting with a completely new or uncomfortable way of gathering information. Just start with what you are good at. With the availability of digital devices and numerous sources of information on the internet, it is possible to conduct various tasks of an investigation from behind a desk.
Digital investigations often mainly involve desk research, but they can also include basic offline research, such as going to the library and archives, making phone calls or a combination of all these. Digital investigation means that you are using digital tools and media to investigate. The subject of your investigation can be digital, such as a YouTube video, or it can be analogue, such as the real estate assets of a politician.
Databases that are accessible on the internet are an opportunity for investigators to uncover information beyond the traditional method of digging into archives of physical records. More and more data can be collected, filtered, connected and verified using digital tools. Yet, conducting investigations from behind a screen is not as safe and straightforward as it may first appear.
There are many digital threats to investigations, particularly if those being investigated are wary of being traced. You will read about them throughout this kit. For some investigations, pen and paper is a more appropriate approach. A combination of traditional and new investigation techniques can be very effective. Often, despite the abundance of online information, there is evidence that you cannot find with digital resources. It might be the case that there is no data about your topic available in your country.
However, you can often find more than you expect just by opting for creative ways of information gathering. For instance, donor-funded NGOs all over the world are required to conduct background studies to explore the context of their field of interest before starting any project. During this process, they often conduct surveys and collect detailed datasets that never get published. You might need to find out how many former militia fighters returned to their home villages in your district and that is not an easy task.
But an organisation providing psychological support to that specific group may have those numbers available. Similarly, you might want to know how the contamination of a river has affected your local community but it is difficult to collect accurate, scientific proof about this.
Perhaps there is an environmental NGO that conducted research and interviews with those who got ill because they drank the contaminated water. In many cases, such information is not easily accessible to the public especially when it was meant to serve as background data for other purposes.
However, if you ask the NGO and explain why you need this data, they might often be ready to give it to you, or to help your investigation move forward. Some investigations will require you to conduct your own field work to gather evidence and verify it. Field research means that you identify and collect the information first hand and it is your responsibility to document it and confirm its accuracy.
It can consist of recording testimonies, gathering samples, observing events and places or going out to various places to talk to people. These approaches will also be addressed throughout the kit. You also want to be careful when doing field research. Risks to your personal safety and that of others might be high. Sometimes you can reduce those risks, but other times they may be too overwhelming for you to conduct the investigation.
Knowing when to reconsider, ask for help, or set a project aside for a while if possible, is also a healthy attitude and asset to have as an investigator. Good evidence is first-hand. Did you witness something yourself; do you have access to the persons involved, or to official documents about it? Good evidence can be documented and preserved. Are you able to map the path that led you to the evidence, record every step of your research process, and save it in a way that other investigators can later access it, confirm its accuracy and make sense of it?
Good evidence is timely, created or documented close to when the event occurred. Did a lot of time pass and make the evidence less traceable? Did recordings or documents get lost? You will need to dig up the past or find new information elsewhere. Good evidence can be verified.
Can you and others check and confirm that what you have is real and accurate? Good evidence has origins that can be confirmed by a third party, in addition to you and your source. Are you the only one who has access to the source of information, and the only one who can say it is real? If so, this can become a weakness if someone should challenge your evidence or claim you are making it up.
However, if you are dealing with a vulnerable source, keeping it a secret may be your - and their - only viable option. Good evidence contains information that can be confirmed by a third party. Is there anyone or anything else that can support your claims and evidence?
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